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1 Introduction
E.CIRC: Electrical Circuits Calculator and Teaching Aid
Version 3.2
(c) Written by KCA Smith
Published by Granta Electronics Ltd. 1993
This program has been written with the aim of providing assistance to
the engineering or science student in working through the examples and
problems to be found in textbooks on electrical circuit theory. In
particular, it will reduce some of the tedium associated with the handling
of the complex arithmetic required in a.c. circuit problems, and it will
obviate the difficulties of polynomial factorization when using Laplace
transform techniques.
The four programs contained in E.CIRC (CALC, TEEPI, SIMUL and ROOTS)
follow the basic pattern of those described and listed in Appendix C of
the book: 'Electrical Circuits' by KCA Smith and RE Alley, Cambridge
University Press (1992).
These original programs were written in BBC/IBM BASIC; the derivative
programs in E.CIRC have been written using QuickBASIC. Advantage has been
taken of the power and flexibility of this language to provide greater
ease of use and improved linking among the programs.
Version 3.2 of E.CIRC differs mainly from the earlier version 2.1 with
respect to the inclusion of facilities for plotting graphs of real and
complex variables
Files included with E.CIRC v3.2
1. ECIRC.EXE.....Machine-code executable version of E.CIRC.
2. EHELP32.QKH...On-line 'Help' file which MUST be in the same
directory as ECIRC.EXE at runtime.
3. EINFO.QKH.....On-line 'Information' file which MUST be in the
same directory as ECIRC.EXE at runtime.
4. EHELP32.DOC...ASCII version of the on-line 'Help' file.
5. EGRAPH. DOC...ASCII file containing information on graph routines
Please ensure that all files are included when making copies.
Disclaimer of Warranty: The author and publishers of E.CIRC make no
warranty of any kind that the program is free of error or that it is
consistent with any standard of merchantability, or that it will meet your
requirements for any particular application. The program should not be
relied on for solving a problem whose incorrect solution could result in
injury to persons or property. The author and publishers of E.CIRC
disclaim liability for direct, incidental, or consequential damage
resulting from its use or application.
2.1 Program CALC: general information
CALC contains two linked programs: RLC, which computes the properties
of branches containing RLC elements connected either in series or in
parallel; and CMPLX, for performing chained complex arithmetic. Results
from RLC (effective series resistance Rs and reactance X) may, optionally,
be transferred to CMPLX. Results from both programs are stored in a Global
array, which allows calculated values to be used by other programs or
restored to CMPLX.
2.2 Program RLC
Data for up to three circuit branches at a time may be entered and
calculated. An optional 'Clear' facility is also provided. If not cleared,
calculated data remains in place while new branch parameters are entered.
Values of effective series resistance [Rs] and reactance [X] may be
transferred to CMPLX. Note that this operation will overwrite data held in
the 'ENTER' registers of CMPLX. (If required for later computations, such
data may be transferred to the 'STORE' registers using the block transfer
facility available in 'Global' (see section 8).
Calculated values of Rs and X are automatically stored in 'Global' and
are there available for printing out or saving to disk. Other calculated
circuit parameters may be printed using the 'Print screen' key.
2.3 Program CMPLX
CMPLX contains three groups of three registers: 'Enter', 'Store' and
'Result'. These labels are for reference purposes only; they do not
indicate any restriction on which registers may be used for data entry,
storage or display of results. It is recommended, however, that input is
generally directed to the 'Enter' registers and output to the 'Result'
registers. The default for the display of calculations is Reg# 9.
The contents of the registers in CMPLX are automatically transferred to
the 'Global' array as registers are filled. If CMPLX is exited then re-
entered during calculations, 'Restore' will recall values held in the
'Global' array.
All calculations are effected using the Expression Evaluator (see
sections 5,6,7)
===================================================================
3 Program RLC
Data for up to three circuit branches at a time may be entered and
calculated. An optional 'Clear' facility is also provided. If not cleared,
calculated data remains in place while new branch parameters are entered.
Values of effective series resistance [Rs] and reactance [X] may be
transferred to CMPLX. Note that this operation will overwrite data held in
the 'ENTER' registers of CMPLX. (If required for later computations, such
data may be transferred to the 'STORE' registers using the block transfer
facility available in 'Global' (see section 8); alternatively the 'copy'
[=] command available within CMPLX may be used to transfer the contents of
registers.)
Calculated values of Rs and X are automatically stored in 'Global'
where they are available for printing out or storing to disk. Other
calculated circuit parameters may be printed using the 'Print screen' key.
RLC [N]ew Branch: Select Branch number and whether circuit is series or
parallel. Values of R,L,C and f are then entered/edited.
RLC [C]lear: Select which of three branches, or all, are cleared. (Data
in 'Global' are unaffected.)
RLC [T]ransfer: allows transfer of Rs and X from selected Branch(s)
and effects entry to program CMPLX.
===================================================================
4.1 Program CMPLX
CMPLX contains three groups of three registers: 'Enter', 'Store' and
'Result'. These labels are for reference purposes only; they do not
indicate any restriction on which registers may be used for data entry,
storage or display of results. It is recommended, however, that input is
generally directed to the 'Enter' registers and output to the 'Result'
registers. The default for the display of calculations is Reg# 9.
The contents of the registers in CMPLX are automatically transferred to
the 'Global' array as registers are filled. If CMPLX is exited then re-
entered during calculations, 'Restore' will recall values held in the
'Global' array.
All calculations are effected using the Expression Evaluator (see
sections 5-7).
CMPLX [E]nter: Allows manual entry of complex quantities. Use the
Up/Down cursor keys or number keys to select registers; use Left/Right
keys to select entry in Cartesian or Polar coordinates. When entering a
quantity whose real or imaginary part is zero, it is unnecessary to enter
the zero explicitly, pressing 'Enter' <CR> will suffice. Step to a previous
entry by using the 'Up' cursor key.
CMPLX e[V]aluate: Enter expression to be evaluated using register
numbers as operands. Delete, Home, End and Backspace keys may be used when
editing the expression. (See sections 5-7 for a complete description of
the Expression Evaluator.)
CMPLX [C]lear/[R]estore: Clears screen to remove unwanted data. Note
that values are still held in registers after the 'Clear' operation; the
'Restore' facility will recall data if required.
CMPLX [Z]ero: Places zeros in selected registers. Global values are
unaffected.
CMPLX [G]lobal: Block transfers may be effected as indicated in the
Global Submenu (see section 8).
[M]ain-Menu: Returns to Main menu. (Alternatively, press 'Esc')
[P]lot-Graph: Graphics routines.
===================================================================
5.1 The Expression Evaluator
The Expression Evaluator is designed primarily to handle complex
numbers held in registers, but it contains also features that make it
useful as a general purpose calculator. For complex number calculations
register numbers are used as operands in expressions; real numbers may be
handled in the same way by placing imaginary parts to zero. The real
integers 1...9 may also be incorporated into expressions directly by
prefixing with the hash symbol, eg #4, #8 etc. The range of integers
usable in this way may be further extended by the means of the multiplier
'M'(=10), eg (#4*M)=40, but normally it will be found more convenient to
enter numbers other than single integers via the registers.
With the exception of the reciprocal operator 'R' and the complex
conjugate operator '¢', all of the built-in functions (root, log, sin,
etc.) operate only on the real part of the contents of a register, the
imaginary part is ignored.
Operator priority follows the order: 'quantities in brackets';
exponentiation; multiplication; division; addition, and subtraction. Note
that this differs from the conventional rules of algebra and from standard
BASIC, in which equal priority is specified for multiplication/division
and for addition/subtraction. Great attention must therefore be paid to
operator priority when constructing expressions, particularly those
containing mixed positive and negative terms. For example, if registers
1,2,3 contain the real numbers 1,2,3, then the expression 1-2+3-1 is
interpreted as 1-(2+3)-1 and produces the result -5 (not 1 as might be
expected). In expressions of this type, therefore, positive and negative
terms must be grouped together, negative terms being enclosed within
brackets, viz: 1+3-(2+1). Brackets may be nested to any depth and must be
employed wherever necessary to avoid ambiguity. Examples on the use of the
expression evaluator are given in section 7. (Note: unary minus is not
available in this expression evaluator.)
Expressions entered in lower-case symbols are converted automatically
to upper case during evaluation.
5.2 Operating procedure/keys
Edit mode:
Left/right arrow keys...normal function
Home/End keys...........normal function
Delete key..............normal function
Backspace key...........normal function
Ctrl-Backspace key......deletes entire expression
F1......................recalls expression (automatic save)
F5=√; F6=π; F7=¢
Edit mode: macro keys F1-F4
Alt-Fn...assigns expression to key Fn
(Use 'Enter' key first to record expression)
Fn.......recalls expression assigned to key Fn
Ctrl-Backspace + Alt-Fn...gives null Fn key
Fn + Alt-S...saves assigned expression to disk
(Use Ctrl-Backspace prior to this sequence)
Fn + Alt-L...assigns and displays an expression saved to disk
(Use Ctrl-Backspace prior to this sequence)
Enter mode:
Ctrl-Enter...direct entry to 'Enter' sequence
Use the Up/Down cursor keys or number keys to select
registers; use Left/Right keys to select entry in
Cartesian or Polar coordinates. When entering a
quantity whose real or imaginary part is zero, it is
unnecessary to enter the zero explicitly, pressing
'Enter' <CR> will suffice.
===================================================================
6 Expression Evaluator: specification
OPERATORS:
Multiplication [*] Real and complex numbers
Division [/] ditto
Addition [+] ditto
Subtraction [-] ditto
Reciprocal [R] ditto
Exponentiation [^] Real numbers only
Conjugate [¢] Complex numbers only
Copy [=] Register/register contents
OPERATOR PRIORITY:
[(..)] [^] [*] [/] [+] [-]
OPERANDS:
Register numbers 1...9
Real integers #1...#9
Multiplier M (=10)
Pi π
FUNCTIONS (real numbers only):
Square root x [√x]
e to power x [Ex]
sin x [Sx] (x in degrees)
cos x [Cx] (x in degrees)
tan x [Tx] (x in degrees)
arcsin x [ASx]
arccos x [ACx]
arctan x [ATx]
log base e [Lx]
log base 10 [LGx]
PROGRAMMED FUNCTION KEYS:
F1 Expression entered
F5 Square root [√]
F6 Pi [π]
F7 Conjugate [¢]
F1-F4 Macro keys
===================================================================
7 Expression Evaluator: examples
Register contents: Reg#1 (1+j0); Reg#4 (10+j0)
Reg#2 (2+j0); Reg#5 (20+j0)
Reg#3 (3+j3); Reg#6 (45+j0)
Expression Result Note
Complex 1+2-3 0-j3 + priority
numbers 1-2+3 -4-j3 + priority
1-(2+3) -4-j3 () priority
(1-2)+3 2+j3 () priority
1+2*3 7+j6 * priority
(1+2)*3 9+j9 () priority
(1/2)*3 1.5+j1.5 () priority
3/2+3/2 3+j3 / priority
r(r3+r3+r3) 1+j1 Reciprocal
2*¢3 6-j6 Conjugate
Real 2*π*4 62.8318 2πx10
numbers #2*π*m 62.8318 2πx10
√(2^2+#2^#2) 2.82842 √(2²+2²)
Functions lgm 1 log 10
(real only) lm 2.30258 ln 10
t6 1 tan 45
at#1 45 arctan 1
s(4+5) 0.5 sin (10+20)
s4*c5+c4*s5 0.5 sin10cos20+cos10sin20
r(√(#2*π)) 0.39894 1/√(2π)
r(e(1^#2/#2)) 0.60653 exp(-(1)²/2)
===================================================================
8.1 Global: Storage and Display
Global is used to store and display the results from programs RLC, TEEPI
and CMPLX. Results from SIMUL and ROOTS are stored in the array locations
corresponding to the CMPLX registers. The basis of 'Global' is an array
capable of holding 15 complex numbers, and which is common to all
programs. Menu driven commands allow results, which are automatically
stored in this array, to be transferred between programs.
The contents of Global may also be saved to disk and recalled using
Save/Load commands. After loading from disk, the contents of Global may be
entered into the registers of CMPLX by means of the Restore command
(within CMPLX).
8.2 Global: operating procedure/keys
Transfer results from RLC to CMPLX 'Enter'.....key 'R'.
Transfer results from TEEPI to CMPLX 'Enter'...key 'T'.
Transfer values in CMPLX 'Enter' to 'Store'....key 'E'.
Save values to disk......key 'S' + Function keys F1-F8.
(The contents of Global are saved to files GLOBAL1-GLOBAL8.)
Load files GLOBAL1-8.....key 'L' + Function keys F1-F8.
Print the currently displayed values...key 'P'.
===================================================================
9 Examples on the use of CALC
Example 1
Find the impedances of each of the following series-connected branches
at a frequency of 50 hertz:
1. 1000 ohm; 4 microfarads
2. 300 ohm; 0.5 henry
3. 10,000 ohm; 3 microfarads; 2 henry.
Solution
1. Program RLC; select Series; Branch# 1.
Enter: R=1000; L=0; C=4E-6 (or 4e-6); f=50
Answer: 1000-j795.7747
2. and 3: repeat using Branch# 2 and 3 respectively.
Answers: 300+j157.0796; 10,000-j432.7144
Example 2
Find the effective impedance of the three branches in Example 1 when
they are connected in parallel. (Use the relation: 1/Z=1/Z1+1/Z2+...)
Solution:
Transfer 'All' values to CMPLX registers 1,2,3.
Use the Expression Evaluator to evaluate the expression directly.
Enter..Expression... R(R1+R2+R3) [ or r(r1+r2+r3) ]
Enter.. Results Reg# (1..9).. 7
Answer: 280.9+j74.124 in Reg# 7.
Example 3
A 240 volt supply is connected to the above parallel combination; find
the current drawn.
Solution:
Enter..240+j0 - Register 4.
Enter..Expression... 4/7
Enter..Results Reg# 8
Answer: 0.826, angle -14.78 (0.798-j0.2107) in Reg# 8.
Check:
Compute individual branch currents then add.
With impedances held in registers 1,2,3 and voltage in 4
use expressions 4/1; 4/2; 4/3 to put individual currents into
registers 7,8,9 respectively.
Answers: 0.187 angle 38.51; 0.708 angle -27.63; 0.0239 angle 2.477
Adding these currents gives the main current as before.
===================================================================
10 Theory used in program RLC
Definitions
(Numbers in brackets refer to equations and page numbers in Smith and
Alley - see above)
Resistance R(Rs) ohm Ω Conductance G siemens S
Inductance L henry H Inductive reactance Xl=wL
Capacitance C farad F Capacitive reactance Xc=1/wC
Frequency f herz Hz Reactance X=(wL-1/wC) Ω
Angular (radian) frequency Susceptance B=(wC-1/wL) S
w=2πf rad/s
Series connected elements (Rs = R)
G = effective parallel conductance
B = effective parallel susceptance
Complex Impedance Z = Rs+jX = Rs+j(wL-1/wC) (3.28)
Impedance Z (or │Z│) = √(Rs²+X²); Angle Z = arctan(X/Rs)
Complex Admittance Y = 1/Z = 1/(Rs+jX) = G+jB (3.46)
Admittance Y (or │Y│) = √(G²+B²); Angle Y = arctan(B/G)
G = Rs/(Rs²+X²); B = -X/(Rs²+X²) [125]
Parallel connected elements (G = 1/R)
Rs = effective series resistance
X = effective series reactance
Complex Admittance Y = G+jB = G+j(wC-1/wL)
Admittance Y (or │Y│) = √(G²+B²); Angle Y = arctan(B/G)
Complex Impedance Z = 1/Y = 1/(G+jB) = Rs+jX
Impedance Z (or │Z│) = √(Rs²+X²); Angle Z = arctan(X/Rs)
Rs = G/(G²+B²); X = -B/(G²+B²)
Resonance: series circuit [151]
Condition for resonance: X = wL-1/wC = 0
Resonant frequency fo = 1/2π√(LC) (3.90)
Impedance at resonance = Rs
Quality factor Q = wL/Rs; (3.91)
Bandwidth = fo/Q (3.98)
Resonance: parallel circuit [164]
Condition for resonance: B = wC-1/wL = 0
Resonant frequency fo = 1/2π√(LC)
Impedance at resonance = R
Quality factor Q = R/wL
Bandwidth = fo/Q
===================================================================
11 Program TEEPI
Given the impedances ZA,ZB,ZC connected in a T (or star or Y)
configuration, or the impedances Z1,Z2,Z3 connected in a PI (or delta)
configuration, program TEEPI computes the transformation:
Z1=ZA+ZC+(ZAZC/ZB); ZA=Z1Z2/(Z1+Z2+Z3)
Z2=ZB+ZA+(ZBZA/ZC); ZB=Z2Z3/(Z1+Z2+Z3) (8.25)
Z3=ZC+ZB+(ZCZB/ZA); ZC=Z3Z1/(Z1+Z2+Z3)
Example 1: Three equal impedances of 3+j3 ohms are connected in T. Find
the equivalent PI impedances.
Solution: Select 'Tee to Pi' from the menu and enter impedances as
directed to give PI impedances of 9+j9 ohms.
Example 2: Check that the program gives the correct reverse
transformation.
Solution: Re-run TEEPI this time using the results stored in Global.
Press key 'G' to select Global and transfer the 'TEEPI' results to CMPLX.
Return to TEEPI, select Pi To Tee, then select 'global values' (key 'C')
Example 3: A circuit connected in delta (π) contains series resistance
and inductance in each branch: (1) 1Ω + .01H; (2) 2Ω + .02H; (3) 3Ω +
.03H. Find the impedance of each branch and the impedances of the
equivalent star- (T) connected circuit if the operating frequency is 50
Hz.
Solution: Use program RLC to calculate the branch impedances; the
results will be automatically stored in Global. Transfer to TEEPI, select
Pi to Tee (for delta configuration), and use 'RLC results' (key 'R') from
the submenu.
Answers: Delta impedances: 1+j3.14; 2+j6.28; 3+j9.42.
Star impedances: .33+j1.047; 1+j3.14; .5+j1.57.
==================================================================
12 Program SIMUL
Program SIMUL solves the set of equations:
Z11.X1 + Z12.X2 +...+ Z1N.XN = C1/Θ1
Z21.X1 + Z22.X2 +...+ Z2N.XN = C2/Θ2
... ... ... ...
ZN1.X1 + ZN2.X2 +...+ ZNN.XN = CN/ΘN
where the coefficients Z = (A + jB) are complex.
Select real or complex coefficients and enter the number of equations N
(Nmax = 4). The real (A11...) and imaginary (B11...) parts of each
coefficient are entered separately, as are the magnitudes (C1...) and
angles (Θ1...) of the independent variables on the RHS of the equations.
After entry, check coefficients carefully. A facility is provided for
editing the table displayed. This same facility may be used at the end of
the program to modify the coefficients so that the effects of changing
circuit parameters may be ascertained.
Example: A two-mesh circuit is described by the following equations:
(24+j18)I1 + (-20)I2 = 415/90
(-20)I1 + (60-j30)I2 = 415/150
Find the change in the magnitude of the current I1 if the phase of the
voltage in mesh 1 is changed from 90 degrees to 30 degrees
Solution: With the phase set at 90 deg the table of coeffs displayed is:
Row 1 A11 24 B11 18
A12 -20 B12 0
C1 415 Θ1 90
Row 2 A21 -20 B21 0
A22 60 B22 -30
C2 415 Θ2 150
which gives I1 = 18.21 angle 66.89.
To change the phase to 30 deg, edit the table putting Θ1=30, which
gives I1 = 13.21 angle 2.93. The change in magnitude is, therefore, 18.21-
13.21 = 5 A.
===================================================================
13 Theory used in program SIMUL
Program SIMUL is designed to solve the circuit mesh and nodal equations
The mesh equation for a two-mesh network is of the form:
Z11.I1 + Z12.I2 = V11 (B1)[545]
Z21.I1 + Z22.I2 = V22
where Z11, Z22 are the self-impedances of meshes 1 and 2; Z12 = Z21 is the
mutual impedance; I1 and I2 are the mesh currents, and V11, V22 are the
net emfs acting in meshes 1 and 2 respectively.
The nodal equations for a network having two independent nodes are:
Y11.I1 + Y12.I2 = I11
Y21.I1 + Y22.I2 = I22
where the Ys are admittances (with similar definitions as above); V1 and
V2 are the node voltages, and the Is are the currents injected at the
nodes For purely resistive networks resistance R replaces Z in the mesh
equations; conductance G replaces Y in the nodal equations, and Is and Vs
are interchanged in both.
===================================================================
14 Program ROOTS
Program ROOTS finds the roots of polynomials of the form:
A(M+1)x^M + A(M)x^(M-1) + ... + A(2)x + A(1) = 0
where M is the degree of the polynomial, and the coefficients A may be
complex. In linear electrical circuit theory the coefficients are in
general real.
Example: Find the roots of:
s^4 + 2.613s^3 + 3.414s^2 + 2.613s + 1 = 0
(Denominator polynomial for 4th-order Butterworth filter - see page 372
Smith & Alley)
Solution: At the prompt put M = 4 and select real coefficients. Enter:
A5=1; A4=2.613; A3=3.414; A2=2.613; A1=1. The roots are then:
s1=-0.3826+j0.9239; s2=-0.3826-j0.9239;
s3=-0.9238+j0.3827; s4=-0.9238-j0.3827.
Notice that the roots are complex conjugate pairs.
As an exercise, try substituting these roots back into the polynomial.
Transfer the roots to CMPLX using the [R]estore command to display roots
s1-s4 in Reg# 1-4 respectively. Use Reg# 5 and 6 to hold the coefficients
2.613 and 3.414. Finally (for the first root) enter the expression:
1*1*1*1+5*1*1*1+6*1*1+5*1+#1
The result of this operation (5.960464E-08 + j0) provides an indication
of the accuracy of the computations. Note that complex quantities are
raised to a power by repeated multiplication, NOT by means of the
exponentiation operator.
Repeat for the other roots by copying them in turn into Reg# 1 using
the copy commands [1=2], [1=3], [1=4]. (Store the expression first on key
F2, otherwise it will be lost when you use the copy command.)
===================================================================
15 Symbols and constants
A symbol consisting of up to two characters in length may be assigned to
any of the nine registers. Symbols are entered when using the 'Enter'
routine, either from the CMPLX sub-menu (key E), or from the Evaluator
(Ctrl-Ent). After setting up an expression in the Evaluator in the usual
way, a separate display line will display the expression in symbolic form
when the 'Ent' <CR> key is pressed.
The following physical constants may be entered into the REAL parts of
registers by using the Shift-key combination:
Velocity of light c Shift-c
Planck constant h Shift-h
Boltzmann constant k Shift-k
Electronic charge e Shift-e
Mass of electron me Shift-m
Permaeability free space (mu) Shift-u
Permittivity free space (epsilon) Shift-p
===================================================================
16 Graph: general information
This version of the program differs from the previous version (v 2.1)
mainly in that it includes facilities for plotting graphs. To run the
graphics routines a VGA adapter is required (neither CGA nor EGA will
suffice). All other routines should run on a minimal PC without an
adapter. Graphs may be output to a printer by running GRAPHICS.COM from
DOS prior to loading E.CIRC. This activates the Print-Screen key.
Three main graphics modes are available:
1. Graph: functions
Up to four functions of a real variable may be plotted. Only the real
parts of registers are operative for this mode. Normally the independent
variable, which is plotted on the x-axis, is assigned to Reg#1; the
dependent variable (y-axis) is normally assigned to Reg#9. Functions are
entered into the Expression Evaluator and are stored on the F1-F4 keys.
The Graph functions routine is invoked from the CMPLX Sub-Menu. You are
prompted to enter the number of functions to be plotted.
This graphics mode also contains associated routines for
plotting and displaying Parametric Functions, Bode and Nyquist diagrams.
2. Graph: parameters
A single function may be plotted for up to four values of a selected
parameter. The function to be plotted is entered into the Expression
Evaluator and stored on the F1 key. The independent variable may be the
real, imaginary, magnitude, or angle components of any register (normally
Reg#1); the dependent variable (always the y-axis) is normally chosen from
one component of Reg#9. Normally the x-axis is assigned to the independent
variable, but it may, alternatively, be assigned to any one of the four
components of the dependent variable, so that, for example, the magnitude
of the independent variable may be plotted on the y-axis against the angle
of the independent variable on the x-axis. The Graph parameters routine is
invoked from the CMPLX Sub-Menu.
3 Graph: Argand
This routine displays the contents of the 9 registers in program CMPLX
===================================================================
17 Graph: functions
Sub-menu
[N]ew Graph: Enter dialogue box by pressing key N (response to
Y/N?). Step forward through list to change default values by
pressing 'Ent' <CR>. Use the 'Up' cursor key to step backwards
through the list. Return to the Sub-menu by pressing 'Esc'.
When your plotting parameters are satisfactory, press key Y.
At prompt, choose between true and false origins.
Read off values from graphs using Left/Right Up/Down cursor keys
Press 'Ctrl'-L/R cursor keys to magnify cursor shift.
Press 'Esc' to return to Sub-menu
[R]e-plot Graph: Use this key to re-plot data held in registers.
(Note: once the Sub-menu is left, data is lost.)
[S]ave: Current graph is saved to a disk file - select keys F1-F8.
[L]oad: Recalls graphs saved on F1-F8 keys.
[E]nter: Use to change values of constants held in registers.
CMPL[X]: Returns to CMPLX Sub-Menu. (Or use 'Esc')
===================================================================
18 Graph: parameters
Sub-menu
[N]ew Graph: Enter dialogue box by pressing key N (response to
Y/N?). Step forwards through list to change default values by
pressing 'Ent' <CR>. Use the 'Up' cursor key to step backwards
through the list. Return to Sub-menu by pressing 'Esc'.
When your plotting parameters are satisfactory, press key Y.
At prompt, choose between true and false origins.
Read off values from graphs using Left/Right Up/Down cursor keys
Press 'Ctrl'-L/R cursor keys to magnify cursor shift.
Press 'Esc' to return to Sub-menu
[R]e-plot Graph: Use this key to re-plot data held in registers.
(Note: once the Sub-menu is left, data is lost.)
[S]ave: Current graph is saved to a disk file - select keys F1-F8.
[L]oad: Recalls graphs saved on F1-F8 keys.
[E]nter: Use to change values of constants held in registers.
CMPL[X]: Returns to CMPLX Sub-Menu.
===================================================================
19 Graph: phasor example using Graph: parameters
Phasor voltages V1 and V2 are connected in series opposition across a
resistor R so that the resulting current is given by (V1-V2)/R. If V1=10/0
and V2=10/A, plot the magnitude of the current as a function of angle A
over the range 1<A>359 and for values of R = 2,4 6,8. (Note that the phase
of the current is indeterminate for angles 0 and 360.)
Set up the function as (1-2)/3 in the evaluator with:
Reg#1 containing Mag=10, Angle=0, symbol=V1
Reg#2 containing Mag=10, Angle=45, symbol=V2
Reg#3 containing Real=2, Imag=0, symbol=R (parameter)
This will evaluate to 3.8268/-67.5 if set up correctly.
Invoke the New Graph dialogue box and enter the following data:
Col.1 Variable Reg#=2; Complex Pt=a; Min value=1; Max value=359.
Col.2 x-axis Reg#=2; Complex Pt=a; y-axis Reg#=9; Complex Pt=m; p-label=R.
Col.3 Parameter Reg#=3; Complex Pt=r; Num Parameters=4, Values=2,4,6,8.
Default values may be used for all other settings.
In this example we have plotted the magnitude of the current (y-axis)
against the phase angle of V2 (x-axis). Try re-plotting with the x-axis
Reg#=9 and the Complex Pt=a. Now the x-axis represents the angle of the
current; observe that this angle changes from -89.5 to +89.5 as the phase
angle of V2 (independent variable x') changes over the range 1-359. As x'
approaches 180, x approaches 0.
(At this angle the magnitude of the voltage across the resistor is 20,
which results in a current of 10 (R=2) - as indicated on the graph.)
As a further exercise, try re-plotting with x-axis Reg#=9, Complex Pt=r
and with y-axis Reg#=9, Complex Pt=i. These plots give the real and
imaginary parts of the complex current as a function of the phase angle of
V2 with resistance R as the parameter.
===================================================================
20 Graph: Bode, Nyquist, Parametric, Argand
20.1 Bode plot
The Bode plot displays Gain (decibels) and Phase (degrees) plotted
against a logarithmic frequency scale (log base 10). Gain and phase
functions must be stored on the F1 and F2 keys respectively from the
Evaluator. Real parts of registers only are used for this routine.
Sub-menu: This is identical to the 'Graph Functions' sub-menu (see
section 17). The dialogue box is also similar.
20.2 Nyquist (polar) plot
This diagram displays Gain (loop-gain) as the magnitude of a vector
(linear scale) against Phase (degrees) as the angle of the vector. This is
essentially the same as a polar (R,Θ) plot. Gain and phase functions of
frequency (R,Θ functions of the independent parameter) must be stored on
the F1 and F2 keys respectively from the Evaluator. Real parts of registers
only are used for this routine.
Sub-menu: This is identical to the 'Graph Functions' sub-menu (see
section 17). The dialogue box is also similar.
20.3 Parametric
This routine plots functions of an independent variable along the x- and y-
axes. The function stored on the F1 key is plotted on the x-axis, while the
function stored on the F2 key is plotted on the y-axis. Real parts of
registers only are used for this routine.
Sub-menu: This is identical to the 'Graph Functions' sub-menu (see
section 17). The dialogue box is also similar.
20.4 Argand diagram
This routine displays the contents of registers 1...9 in CMPLX. All of the
register contents may be selected or only those held in specified
registers. A non-linear display option is available which allows a wider
range of values to be displayed on the same diagram.
Example: Display on the Argand diagram the roots of the polynomial:
s^4 + 2.613s^3 + 3.414s^2 + 2.613s + 1 = 0
(Denominator polynomial for 4th-order Butterworth filter - see page 372
Smith & Alley)
Solution: Find the roots as detailed in the example contained in section
14. Transfer the values of the roots to Reg# 1...4 in CMPLX by using
[R]estore from the CMPLX sub-menu. (Note: anything held in these registers
will be overwritten.) Select these registers and the linear option after
invoking [A]rgand.
===================================================================
1 Software from Granta Electronics
Granta Electronics Ltd. publishes scientific and engineering software
which has been developed mainly within the University of Cambridge for
educational purposes and for university and industrial R&D. All
educational programs are designed to run on IBM PC or compatible
computers. The following programs in the E.CIRC series will be released
during 1994 (E.CIRC v2.1 was published, August 1992):
1. E.CIRC v2.2
As version 2.1 but with improved facilities for manipulating complex
quantities. Will run on minimal PC.
(Scheduled for release second quarter 1994.)
2. E.CIRC v3.3
As E.CIRC v3.2 but with improved facilities for plotting graphs. Will
run only on machines with VGA graphics.
(Scheduled for release second quarter 1994.
===================================================================
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